![]() Our chapter contributes to debates about metal and class identity by studying metal’s connections to music associated with higher education and upward social mobility. Brown (2016) synthesized this literature, arguing that “further work on metal and class identities needs to focus more on the analysis of the middle class, particularly the lower middle class” (Brown 2016, 203). However, authors writing outside of English-speaking countries (Roccor 1998, Baulch 2003, Hein 2003, Muršič 2012) generally characterize metal as a practice of the educated and upwardly mobile middle-class. ![]() ![]() Since the 1980s, with a few exceptions (Arnett 1996, Halnon 2004, Smialek 2008), English-language scholarship on heavy metal has overwhelmingly described metal fans as working class or blue collar.
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